Under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the IRC, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” generally defined as a greater than 50% change (by value) in its equity ownership over a three-year period, the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOLs and other pre-change tax attributes (such as research tax credits) to offset its post-change income and post-change liability may be limited. We have not undertaken a Section 382 study, and it is possible that we have previously undergone one or more ownership changes so that our use of net operating losses is subject to limitation. We may experience ownership changes in the future as a result of subsequent shifts in our stock ownership. As a result, if we earn net taxable income, our ability to use our pre-change NOLs to offset U.S. federal taxable income may be subject to limitations, which could potentially result in increased future tax liability to us. In addition, at the state level, there may be periods during which the use of NOLs is suspended or otherwise limited, which could accelerate or permanently increase state taxes owed.
U.S. federal income tax reform and changes in other tax laws could adversely affect us.
Tax laws are being re-examined and evaluated globally, and tax authorities are increasingly scrutinizing the tax positions of companies. Changes in tax laws and regulations in federal, state, local, and foreign jurisdictions could have material adverse impacts on our business, cash flows, operating results, or financial condition, and could materially affect our tax obligations and effective tax rate. For example, U.S. tax legislation enacted on December 22, 2017, informally titled the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, or the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, significantly reformed the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code. This legislation, among other things, included changes to U.S. federal tax rates, imposed significant additional limitations on the deductibility of interest and the use of net operating losses generated in tax years beginning after December 31, 2017 and allowed for the expensing of capital expenditures. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act is unclear in many respects and could be subject to potential amendments and technical corrections, as well as interpretations and implementing regulations by the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service, or IRS, any of which could lessen or increase certain adverse impacts of the legislation. In addition, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, or the CARES Act, was signed into law in March 2020, and subsequently in December 2020, the Continued Assistance for Unemployed Workers Act of 2020, or CARES Act II, was signed into law. The CARES Act and CARES Act II modify certain of the changes made by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. Changes in corporate tax rates, the realization of net deferred tax assets, and the deductibility of expenses under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, as amended by the CARES Act and CARES Act II, or future tax reform legislation could have a material impact on the value of our deferred tax assets, could result in significant one-time charges in the current or future taxable years, and could increase our future U.S. tax expense. The foregoing items, as well as any other future changes in tax laws, could have a material adverse effect on our business, operating results and financial condition. In addition, it is uncertain if and to what extent various states will conform to the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, as amended by the CARES Act and CARES Act II, or any newly enacted federal tax legislation. Changes in tax laws or regulations in the various tax jurisdictions we are subject to that are applied adversely to us or our clients could increase the costs of our products and harm our business.
Additionally, we use our best judgment in attempting to quantify and reserve for our tax obligations. However, a challenge by a taxing authority, a limitation on our ability to utilize tax benefits such as carryforwards or tax credits, or a deviation from other tax-related assumptions could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, or financial condition.
Our employees, principal investigators, CROs and consultants may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements and insider trading.
We are exposed to the risk of fraud or other misconduct by our employees, principal investigators, consultants and commercial partners. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional failures to comply with the regulations of FDA and ex-U.S. regulators, provide accurate information to the FDA and ex-U.S. regulators, comply with healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations in the United States and abroad, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, misconduct, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Such misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical studies, which could result in