CEA China Eastern Airlines Corp Ltd

Our registered office is located at 66 Airport Street, Pudong International Airport, Shanghai, China, 201202. Our principal executive office and mailing address is Kong Gang San Road, Number 92, Shanghai, 200335, China. The telephone number of our principal executive office is (86-21) 6268-6268 and the fax number for the Board Secretariat's office is (86-21) 6268-6116. We currently do not have an agent for service of process in the United States.

Our Company, China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited was established on April 14, 1995 under the laws of China as a company limited by shares in connection with the restructuring of our predecessor and our initial public offering. We are commercially known in the industry as China Eastern Airlines. Our predecessor was one of the six original airlines established in 1988 as part of the decentralization of the airline industry in China undertaken in connection with China's overall economic reform efforts. Prior to 1988, the CAAC was responsible for all aspects of civil aviation in China, including the regulation and operation of China's airlines and airports. In connection with our initial public offering, our predecessor was restructured into two separate legal entities, our Company and EA Group. According to the restructuring arrangement, by operation of law, our Company succeeded to substantially all of the assets and liabilities relating to the airline business of our predecessor. EA Group succeeded to our predecessor's assets and liabilities that do not directly relate to the airline operations and do not compete with our businesses. Assets transferred to EA Group included our predecessor's equity interests in companies engaged in import and export, real estate, advertising, in-flight catering, tourism and certain other businesses. In connection with the restructuring, we entered into various agreements with EA Group and its subsidiaries for the provision of certain services to our Company. CEA Holding assumed the rights and liabilities of EA Group under these agreements after it was formed by merging EA Group, Yunnan Airlines Company and China Northwest Airlines Company in October 2002. See "Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions" for more details. The following chart sets forth the organizational structure of our Company and our significant subsidiaries as of December 31, 2016:

* Except for Eastern Air Overseas (Hong Kong) Co., Limited (which was incorporated in Hong Kong), all other subsidiaries in the above chart were incorporated in the PRC.

In February 1997, we completed our initial public offering of 1,566,950,000 ordinary H Shares, par value RMB1.00 per share, and listed our ordinary H Shares on The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited, or the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited (the "Hong Kong Stock Exchange"), and American Depositary Shares, or ADSs, representing our H Shares, on the New York Stock Exchange. In October 1997, we completed a public offering of 300,000,000 new ordinary domestic shares in the form of A Shares to public shareholders in China and listed such new shares on the Shanghai Stock Exchange. H Shares are our ordinary shares listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and A Shares are our ordinary shares listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange. Our H Shares and A Shares are identical in respect of all rights and preferences, except that the listed A Shares may only be held by Chinese domestic investors and certain qualified foreign institutional investors. For information regarding our share capital structure, see "Item 10.B Memorandum and Articles of Association – Description of Shares." In addition, dividends on the A Shares are payable in Renminbi.

Since our initial public offering, we have expanded our operations through acquisitions and joint ventures.

On June 12, 2012, the Board resolved and approved to issue corporate bonds in the aggregate principal amount of not more than RMB8.8 billion and for a term of not more than ten years for a single or multiple issuances. We received the CSRC approval for this issuance on December 12, 2012. On March 20, 2013, we issued the first tranche of the corporate bonds in the amount of RMB4.8 billion at 5.05% due 2023. The use of proceeds from this issuance was to repay bank loans, improve our financing structure and replenish our short-term working capital.

On September 11, 2012, the Board resolved and approved the "Proposal for the non-public issuance of A Shares to specific placees by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited" and the "Proposal for the non-public issuance of H Shares to specific placees by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited," according to which, (i) CEA Holdings and CES Finance would subscribe in cash for 241,547,927 and 457,317,073 new A Shares, respectively, at the subscription price of RMB3.28 per share; and (ii) CES Global Holdings (Hong Kong) Limited, an overseas wholly-owned subsidiary of CEA Holding, ("CES Global") would subscribe in cash for 698,865,000 new H Shares (nominal value of RMB1.00 each) at the subscription price of HK$2.32 per share. On January 31, 2013, the CSRC approved our proposed issue of no more than 698,865,000 new H Shares with a nominal value of RMB1.00 each. The Public Offering Review Committee of the CSRC reviewed and conditionally approved our application relating to the non-public issue of new A Shares of the Company on February 25, 2012.

On December 27, 2012, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours entered into an agreement with Eastern Tourism and Shanghai Dongmei to acquire 45% and 55% of the issued share capital of Xi’an Dongmei Aviation Travel Co. Ltd, held by them respectively for a consideration of approximately RMB3.3 million comprising approximately RMB1.5 million payable to Eastern Tourism and approximately RMB1.8 million payable to Shanghai Dongmei.

On December 27, 2012, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours also entered into another agreement with Eastern Tourism and Shanghai Dongmei to acquire 45% and 55% of the issued share capital of Kunming Dongmei, held by them respectively for a consideration of approximately RMB10.6 million comprising RMB4.7 million payable to Eastern Tourism and approximately RMB5.8 million payable to Shanghai Dongmei.

On January 10, 2013, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours entered into an agreement with Eastern Tourism to acquire the entire issued share capital of Eastern Travel held by Eastern Tourism Investment Group Co., Ltd for consideration of approximately RMB11.9 million.

On April 9, 2013, the Company obtained an approval from the CSRC, pursuant to which the CSRC approved the non-public issue by the Company for no more than 698,865,000 new A Shares. On April 16, 2013, the procedure for registration of the new A Shares with the Shanghai Branch of China Securities Depository & Clearing Co. Ltd. was completed. The 698,865,000 new A Shares, at an issue price of RMB3.28 per share, under this issue are subject to a lock- up period of 36 months from the completion date of the issue and are expected to be listed on April 17, 2016.

We completed the issuance of new H Shares on June 21, 2013. A total of 698,865,000 new H Shares were issued, at the price of HK$2.32 per share, to CES Global.

On October 29, 2013, the Board resolved and approved that the Company inject RMB36 million into CES Media.

On July 17, 2014, Eastern Air Overseas (Hong Kong) Corporation Limited ("EAO,") our wholly-owned subsidiary, and Jetstar Hong Kong Airways Limited ("Jetstar Hong Kong"), an associated company of the Company, entered into a loan agreement, pursuant to which EAO will provide a loan of US$60 million to Jetstar Hong Kong at fair market interest rates. The principal of the loan was repaid on April 30, 2015.

On August 15, 2014, Shanghai Airlines Tours, our wholly- owned subsidiary, entered into an equity transfer agreement with Eastern Tourism, pursuant to which, Shanghai Airlines Tours acquired 72.84% equity interest in Shanghai Dongmei from Eastern Tourism with consideration of RMB32,147,700. This acquisition has been completed and Shanghai Dongmei has become our indirect holding company.

On December 22, 2014, our Company, CEA Holding and CES Finance (as shareholders of Eastern Air Finance agreed to inject a total of RMB1,500 million into Eastern Air Finance in proportion according to their respective shareholding in Eastern Air Finance. In February 2015, we contributed a pro-rata amount of RMB375 million in cash.

On March 29, 2015, China United Airlines, our wholly-owned subsidiary, fully adopted the low-cost carrier service model.

On May 30, 2015, we received approval from the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology to offer in-flight Wi-Fi services using KU-band satellite onboard 21 aircraft.

On July 9, 2015 we entered into the B737 Aircraft Purchase Agreement with Boeing Company in Shanghai to purchase fifty B737 series aircraft from Boeing Company.

On July 27, 2015, we entered into a conditional subscription agreement (“Subscription Agreement”) with Delta Air Lines, Inc. (“ Delta Air Lines ”), pursuant to which Delta Air Lines agreed to subscribe for 465,910,000 shares of the newly issued ordinary H shares of the Company in an amount of HK$3,488,895,000, representing approximately 3.5% of the total share capital of the Company. On September 9, 2015, we completed the issue of 465,910,000 ordinary H shares to Delta Airlines, with a par value of RMB1.00 each at an issue price of HK$7.49 per share.

On August 14, 2015, the Board of Directors approved the “Resolution on the Termination of the Proposed Establishment of Jetstar Hong Kong and its Winding Up”. The Board of Directors considers that the termination of the proposed establishment of Jetstar Hong Kong will have no material adverse impact on the financial conditions and production and operation of the Company. See the announcement furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K dated August 17, 2015.

On August 28, 2015, we formally established the foreign airlines service centre.

On September 1, 2015, Delta Air Lines and we entered into a marketing agreement and a letter of confirmation on the Subscription Agreement. Pursuant to the marketing agreement, both parties will have greater cooperation in terms of code-share, revenue management, schedule coordination, sales cooperation, airport facilities sharing, frequent-flyer program, lounge and system investment as well as staff exchange. Pursuant to the letter of confirmation on the Subscription Agreement, as of September 1, 2015, all conditions precedent to the Subscription Agreement had been fulfilled except for those conditions that will be fulfilled on the completion date of share subscription. On September 9, 2015, we completed the issue of 465,910,000 ordinary H shares with a par value of RMB1.00 each at an issue price of HK$7.49 per share.

On November 6, 2015, the Civil Aviation Administration of China officially announced and granted the “Safe Flight Diamond Award”, the highest award for flight safety in the PRC civil aviation industry, to the Company.

In January 2016, we received the “Approval for the Non-Public Issuance of A Shares by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited” (Zheng Jian Xu Ke [2016] No. 8) issued by the CSRC, approving us to issue not more than 2,329,192,546 A Shares by way of non-public issuance.

The material development of our indebtedness is set out in Note 34 and Note 49 to the consolidated financial statements. The capital expenditure is set out in Item 5 in this Annual Report.

The table below sets forth details of our operating fleet as of December 31, 2014:

The table below sets forth details of our operating fleet as of December 31, 2015:

The table below sets forth details of our operating fleet as of December 31, 2016:

We were one of the three largest air carriers in China in terms of revenue, tonne, kilometers and number of passengers carried in 2016, and is an important domestic airline based in and serving Shanghai, which is considered to be the international financial and shipping center of China. The primary focus of our business is the operation of civil aviation, including the provision of passenger, cargo, mail delivery, tour operations and other extended transportation services. As of December 31, 2016, we served a route network that covers 1,062 domestic and foreign destinations in 177 countries through SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance. We operate primarily from our core hub in Shanghai and regional hubs in Kunming and Xi’an.

We have received many awards, recognitions and accolades through the years. Fortune Magazine recognized us as one of the "Most Innovative PRC Companies" in 2011, and our "China Eastern Airlines" brand was awarded "China's Famous Trademark" by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce in 2011. In addition, in 2012 we received various recognitions and awards, including "Golden Tripod Prize", which was the highest award awarded at the 8th Annual Meeting of China's Securities Market, "Golden Bauhinia" Award for "The Listed Company with Best Brand Value 2012" by China Securities, "2012 Best Mid-Cap Company and Best Managed Company in China" by Asiamoney Magazine, "Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands" by WPP, a global brand communication and public relations firm, "2012 TOP 25 CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) Ranking" by Fortune China Magazine, "2012 China State-owned Listed Enterprise Social Responsibility Rankings Top 20" by Southern Weekly, "The Best Board of Directors of State-owned Listed Holding Companies of China Top 20" by various major financial media, including Moneyweek, "Healthy China – Best Employee Health & Benefit Unit" by Health Times, a major newspaper in China focusing on health and lifestyle, and Tsinghua University, "Internal Audit Leading Enterprises in terms of Risk Management and Internal Audit" by China Institute of Internal Audit, "Best 100 Employers" by zhaopin.com, a major online recruiting website in China, and "The World's Most Improved Airline" by SKYTRAX, a United Kingdom-based aviation research organization. In 2013, we received the National 1 May Award Certificate and were honored as one of the "2013 Top Ten Companies with the Best Corporate Social Responsibility" by Fortune China Magazine, “Best Mid-cap Company” by Hong Kong Asiamoney Magazine for the second consecutive year, “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands in 2013” by WPP, a global brand communication and public relations firm, the “Golden Bauhinia Award” of the “Best Listed Company” and “Listed Company with the Best Investor’s Relations Management” by Ta Kung Pao and one of the “Best 100 Employers” by zhaopin.com. In 2014, our charity campaign “Love at China Eastern Airlines” was awarded the Gold Award at the First Chinese Young Volunteers Services Contest. The “Love at China Eastern Airlines” campaign has organized activities such as visiting welfare and nursing homes, subsidizing Hope Schools and schools for urban and rural migrant workers’ children and teaching school children with hearing and speaking impairment, running blood donation programs, and other activities for environmental protection. The campaign launched 5,179 projects with 274,979 staff and members taking participation, serving a total of 233,353 people in need. Through interaction with the community, we have established a charity brand image of “delivering love and serving the community”. In 2015, “Love at China Eastern Airlines” launched 530 projects all year round, with 26,119 staff participating, serving a total of 40,166 people.

In 2014, we were recognized as “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands” by WPP, a global brand communication firm, as well as being awarded the “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award” and ranked first as the “Best Listed Company Award” by Ta Kung Pao in Hong Kong for three consecutive years; and ranked among top 10 in terms of “Most Competitive Asia Airline 2014” and “Most Popular Asia Airline 2014” in the 5th World Airline Competitiveness Rankings.

In 2015, we were bestowed a number of awards, such as “Best China Airline” at the 8th TTG (Asia Media) China Travel Awards, “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award – Listed Company with the Most Valuable Brand” for four consecutive years and "Best Innovative Listed Company" granted by Hong Kong Ta Kung Pao, as well as "2014-2015 Most Respectable Chinese Enterprise" and "2015 Chinese Best Business Model Innovation Award" by the Economic Observer and 21st Century Business Herald, respectively.

In 2016, we successively won the 9th TTG China Tourism Awards “Best China Airlines”, and was awarded “2016 Asian Tourism Red Coral Award – Most Popular Airline Brand”, “Asia Pacific 2016 Excellence Aviation Award” and “International Carbon Gold Award – Social Citizenship Award” by the 2016 Asian Tourism Industry Annual Conference, the CAPA Communication Center and the World Environmental Protection (Economy and Environment) Conference respectively.

Compared to 2015, our traffic volume (as measured in RTKs) increased by 10.6% from 17,820 million in 2015 to 19,712 million in 2016. Our passenger traffic volume (as measured in revenue passenger-kilometers, or RPKs) increased by 14.5% from 146,342 million in 2015 to 167,529 million in 2016. Our cargo and mail traffic volume (as measured in revenue freight tonne-kilometers, or RFTKs) increased by 0.2% from 4,865 million in 2015 to 4,875 million in 2016.

Our domestic routes generated approximately 64.8% of our passenger revenues in 2016. Our most heavily traveled domestic routes generally link Shanghai to the large commercial and business centers of China, such as Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen.

We have set up subsidiaries in 15 provinces and cities including Shanghai, Beijing, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Shandong, Hubei, Shanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Hebei and Guangdong by the end of 2016. Our flight routes include all provincial capital cities in China and specifically designated cities.

In 2016, we opened new routes to Prague, St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, Madrid, Chicago and Brisbane, and cancelled routes to Kathmandu from Shanghai Pudong via Kunming. As of the end of 2016, by connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, our flights had access to 1,062 destinations in 177 countries.

In 2014, with Shanghai as a core hub and Kunming and Xi’an as regional hubs, we continued to expand our route network to provide additional connecting opportunities and strengthen our market position in these three major hubs. New routes from Pudong to Toronto and Auckland were introduced at Shanghai Pudong hub while more frequent flights were added for international routes to New York, Los Angeles, London and Paris to maximize the coverage of the Shanghai hub network. The Kunming hub launched a new route from Kunming to Paris, which is the first inter-continental route in Yunnan Province, and continued to optimize route network and flight schedules for Kunming to East Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia. We proactively utilized aircraft to expand our route network and flight destinations of Xi’an hub were increased to 70. According to our strategic plan to seize the opportunity for sales in the market, the early termination of leases regarding A300, 767 and 757 aircraft, the relatively early termination of wide-body aircraft and, in addition, the early retirement of EMB and one 733 aircraft, in terms of static seat growth, increased by 5.9% in 2014 compared to 2013. Moreover, there were less aircraft introduced in the first half of the year than those introduced in the second half of the year, leading to capacity not fully utilized in the peak season of July to August, thus leading to slowing down of the overall growth in capacity. Apart from the number of static seats, there were more busy airports and bottleneck issues slowed down the growth of domestic routes of traditional airlines. In particular, the capacity of the Shanghai region did not grow quickly and was affected by military exercises during the peak season. The routes between China and Southeast Asia were affected by the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 incident, the political instability in the region and anti-China atmosphere, leading to a slow-down of capacity growth. We also experienced competitive pressures from low-cost airlines which also adversely affected revenues and capacity.

In 2015, we conducted significant optimization of our fleet structure, and increased our fleet to 551 aircrafts as at the end of 2015, and the variety of our aircraft models was streamlined to 13 models by the end of 2015. In respect of passenger transportation, we actively seized the opportunities brought about by international low oil prices and robust demand for outbound tourism, and achieved impressive growth in passenger transportation by responding proactively to adverse factors such as geopolitical instability around the globe, terrorist attacks outside China, MERS cases in South Korea and impact on short-haul routes due to formation of a high-speed railway network in 2015. Efforts have been made to foster the construction of hubs and negotiate time slots in hub and core markets in order to promote superb connectivity. In respect of freight transportation and logistics, we tightened our cost control, optimized production structure, broadened marketing channels and strived to stabilize transportation prices in 2015. In 2015, we further strengthened our cooperation with both member and non-member airlines of SkyTeam Alliance to widen the scope of cooperation and improve the quality of cooperation. In September 2015, we entered into a strategic partnership with Delta Air Lines to deepen our cooperation in terms of code-share, cabin sharing and joint sales. By forming an industry-leading route network, both parties implemented codeshare on 123 routes, including 9 international major routes and 114 domestic routes in the PRC and the USA. Through offering joint sales to corporate customers, the influential power of the North American corporate customers was increased. As for the European market, the Group and Air France have realized interline transit services for flights departing and arriving at Shanghai, Dalian, Paris and Nice. In the Australian market, the joint operation with Qantas was officially commenced to launch codeshare on major routes such as Shanghai-Sydney and Shanghai- Melbourne routes, in order to launch in-depth cooperative projects including customer base sharing.

In 2015, we put in available seat – kilometers (ASK) of 181,792.90 million passenger-kilometers, representing an increase of 13.2% from 2014. Number of passengers carried in 2015 was 93.8 million, representing an increase of 11.9% from 2014. Passenger load factor in 2015 was 80.5%, representing an increase of 1.2% from 2014. Passenger revenue in 2015 amounted to RMB78,585 million, representing an increase of 4.4% from 2014.

In 2016, we continued to update and optimize our fleet structure, introducing new aircrafts continually and retiring outdated model aircrafts. As of the end of 2016, our average flight age was 5.4 years. We mainly introduce long – haul B777 series aircrafts in trans-Pacific routes; mid-to-long-haul A330 series aircrafts in China-Europe routes, China-Australia and domestic business routes; A320 series and B737 series aircrafts in domestic and surrounding countries and regions routes, which we believe enhances the matching level between fleet models and routes, transportation capacities and relevant markets. In 2016, we continued to deepen and expand our cooperation with external partners. Relying on the SkyTeam Alliance platform, we continued to enhance our cooperation with member airlines in the SkyTeam Alliance. In collaboration with Delta Air Lines, based on pre-existing trans-Pacific routes and destinations in the PRC and the USA, we further extended our network of cooperative routes to Canada, Mexico, Southeast Asian and South American regions, achieving a total of 252 codeshare routes. In collaboration with Air France-KLM Group (“Air France-KLM”), based on our jointly operated routes and code-share coverage, we increased our joint marketing efforts to corporate customers in the French market.

In 2016, we proactively promoted the establishment of transportation hubs with the opening of various international routes for long-haul flights and an enhanced coverage of our transportation network. With Shanghai as the core hub, we added six international routes for long-haul flights to our network, connecting Shanghai and Prague, Amsterdam, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Chicago and Brisbane, respectively. We provided more frequent flight services on routes connecting Shanghai and New York City, Los Angeles, Sydney and Melbourne. We added routes connecting Kunming and Sydney, Qingdao and San Francisco, Nanjing and Vancouver and Hangzhou and Sydney. Last, we stabilized the allocation of our flight capacities for Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia markets. As a result of these enhanced transit connection and expanded transit routes structures, in 2016, we experienced approximately 26.8%, 63.8% and 43.1% year-on-year growth in passenger flight capacity for Europe, North America and Australia markets, respectively; and our inter-airline transit volume and revenue grew by 24.2% and 21.4%, respectively. As of the end of 2016, by connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, our flights had access to 1,062 destinations in 177 countries.

In 2016, we put in available seat – kilometers (ASK) of 206,249.27 million passenger-kilometers, representing an increase of 13.5% from 2015. Number of passengers carried in 2016 was 101.74 million, representing an increase of 8.5% from 2015. Passenger load factor in 2016 was 81.2%, representing an increase of 0.7% from 2015. Passenger revenue in 2016 amounted to RMB83,577 million, representing an increase of 6.4% from 2015.

We operate most of our flights through our three hubs located in eastern, northwestern and southwestern China, namely Shanghai, Xi'an and Kunming, respectively. With Shanghai as our main hub and Xi'an and Kunming as our regional hubs, we believe that we will benefit from the level of development and growth opportunities in eastern, northern and western China as a whole by providing direct services between various cities in those regions and between those regions and other major cities in China. We have steadily fostered the construction of a flight system for these core hubs by introducing new flight destinations and increasing the frequency of certain flights, thereby enhancing our transfer and connection capability in these hub markets.

In 2014 we established in a sequence 6 on schedule navigation points, namely the Delingha, Daocheng, Luzhou, Luliang, Zhanjiang and Hanzhong; three international on schedule navigation points including Bangkok, Osaka, Krabi. We also expanded the above-plateau routes: newly stablished Xi’an - Daocheng Yading, Xi’an - Jiuzhai - Nanjing; frequency increased: Xi’an - Golmud, Xi’an - Jiuzhai, Xi’an - Lhasa, Xi’an - Delingha, Sining - Lhasa.

In 2015, we enhanced Shanghai core hub and Xi’an and Kunming regional hubs, and established and extended our aviation transportation network in major markets with high market influence such as Beijing, Nanjing and Qingdao to cover 1,057 destinations in 179 countries. We strove for additions of air traffic rights and time slot resources in hub markets and core markets, steadily improved the aircraft utilization rate and consolidated and expanded market share in the three largest hubs and core markets. Based on the SkyTeam Alliance platform, we enhanced our strategic cooperation with Delta Air Lines and cooperated with Air France and Qantas to develop a highly efficient and convenient flight network which covered the whole country and connected to the whole wide world.

In 2016, we further strengthened our Shanghai core hub and Xi'an and Kunming regional hubs. The aggregated number of transits connecting “origin to destination” of the three hubs reached 6,075, an increase of 13.8% as compared to last year. In respect of the number of transits connecting "origin to destination", Pudong reached 4,083, an increase of 17.9% as compared to last year, Kunming reached 1,384, an increase of 9.1% as compared to last year, and Xi’an reached 608, which was similar to last year. The three hubs transported 4.51 million passengers, an increase of 27.0% as compared to last year. Among them, our Shanghai hub transported 2.99 million passengers, an increase of 27.2% as compared to last year, comprising 25.6% of transit flights; our Kunming hub transported 1.18 million passengers, an increase of 18.7% as compared with last year, comprising 16.1% of transit flights; and Xi’an hub transported 340,000 passengers, an increase of 64.7% as compared to last year, comprising of 6.9% transit flights.

We are required to obtain from the CAAC the right to carry passengers or cargo on any domestic or international route. Our cargo and mail business generally utilizes the same route network used by our passenger airline business. We carry cargo and mail on our freight aircraft as well as in available cargo space on our passenger aircraft. Our most significant cargo and mail routes are international routes.

In 2014, the global aviation freight transportation business recovered slowly. We achieved relatively significant improvement in results by controlling flight capacity and enhancing marketing efforts. We further streamlined our fleet of freighters and terminated the leases of two older freighters in order to reduce operating costs. By improving the utilization rate of freighters and providing flexible flight capacity options, our market share in Europe and America was stabilized. We have also established a regional freight hub in Zhengzhou by launching cargo flights from Zhengzhou to Amsterdam and Chicago and establishing a Zhengzhou-based regulated truck delivery network, which covers 28 locations in China. We also refined our cabin management by enhancing our management on capacity and fares. Meanwhile, we proactively promoted the transformation of freight transportation and logistics business and expanded value- added businesses such as logistics integration and express delivery. We established a logistics resources bank, which covers 510 suppliers with domestic suppliers generally covering the entire country. We also completed the layout of international suppliers' network in four major regions, including Shanghai, Europe, America and Southeast Asia. We also proactively participated in cross-border e-commerce business by providing logistics solutions for cross-border e- commerce and completing self-development of the “cross-border e-commerce logistics business system”. We enhanced global trading procurement and imported the best and freshest in-season products from regions such as North America and South America.

In 2015, Eastern Airlines Logistics Co., Ltd. (“Eastern Logistics”), one of our subsidiaries, tightened its cost control, optimized production structure, broadened marketing channels and strived to stabilize transportation prices. In terms of traditional freight transportation operation, China Cargo Airlines Co., Ltd. ("China Cargo Airlines") streamlined its fleet scale and terminated the leases for three older freighters, thereby reducing operating costs. Route network of Shanghai hub was optimized to reduce the number of intermediate points and improve operating efficiency, thus increasing the daily utilization rate of freighters for the whole year by more than 8% as compared to last year. Layout of flight capacity was adjusted based on market demand to stabilize flight capacity for the core markets in Europe and America. Efforts have also been made to broaden sourcing channels and strengthen cooperation. As such, the air-freight transit volume increased by nearly 10% as compared to last year. In terms of freight transportation logistics, Eastern Logistics focused on the construction of the core logistics platform for pharmaceutical logistics and aviation equipment as well as the establishment of the transit marketing platform to perfect its third-party logistics solution. Distribution channels of www.eaemall.com have been expanded to construct our rapid supply chain. Through proactively expanding cooperation with cross-border e-commerce partners, the first chartered aircraft for directly imported goods purchased via cross-border e-commerce in the PRC came into service, increasing the annual revenue from cross-border logistics by approximately 32% as compared to last year.

As of the end of 2016, China Cargo Airlines, a controlling subsidiary of Eastern Logistics, operated a total of 9 freighters. On November 29, 2016, we entered into Eastern Logistics equity transfer agreement with Eastern Airlines Industry Investment, in relation to the transfer of 100% equity interests in Eastern Logistics held by the us to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment. For details, please refer to our announcements in the Form 6-K filed with the SEC dated November 30, 2016.

Our Operations by Geographical Area

Our revenues (net of business tax) by geographical area are analyzed based on the following criteria:

The following table sets forth our revenues by geographical area for each of the three years ended December 31, 2016:

Regulation

The PRC Civil Aviation Law provides the framework for regulation of many important aspects of civil aviation activities in China, including:

The Chinese airline industry is also subject to a high degree of regulation by the CAAC. Regulations issued or implemented by the CAAC encompass virtually every aspect of airline operations, including route allocation, domestic airfare, licensing of pilots, operational safety standards, aircraft acquisition, aircraft airworthiness certification, fuel prices, standards for aircraft maintenance and air traffic control and standards for airport operations. Although the PRC airlines operate under the supervision and regulation of the CAAC, they are accorded a significant degree of operational autonomy. These areas of operational autonomy include:

Although we have generally been allocated adequate routes in the past to accommodate our expansion plans and other changes in our operations, those routes are subject to allocation and re-allocation in response to changes in governmental policies or otherwise at the discretion of the CAAC. Consequently, we cannot assure you that our route structure will be adequate to satisfy our expansion plans.

The CAAC has established regulatory policies intended to promote controlled growth of the Chinese airline industry. We believe those policies will be beneficial to the development of and prospects for the Chinese airline industry as a whole. Nevertheless, those regulatory policies could limit our flexibility to respond to changes in market conditions, competition or our cost structure. Moreover, while we generally benefits from regulatory policies that are beneficial to the airline industry in China as a whole, the implementation of specific regulatory policies may from time to time materially and adversely affect our business operations.

Because we provide services on international routes, we are also subject to a variety of bilateral civil air transport agreements between China and other countries. In addition, China is a contracting state as well as a permanent member of the International Civil Aviation Organization, an agency of the United Nations established in 1947 to assist in the planning and development of the international air transportation. The International Civil Aviation Organization establishes technical standards for the international airline industry. China is also a party to a number of other international aviation conventions. Our business operations are also subject to these international aviation conventions, as well as certain foreign country aviation regulations and local aviation laws with respect to route allocation, landing rights and related flight operation regulation.

Domestic Route Rights

Chinese airlines must obtain from the CAAC the right to carry passengers or cargo on any domestic route. The CAAC's policy on domestic route rights is to assign routes to the airline or airlines suitable for a particular route. The CAAC will take into account whether an applicant for a route is based at the point of origin or termination of a particular route. This policy benefits airlines, such as us, that have a hub located at each of the active air traffic centers in China. The CAAC also considers other factors that will make a particular airline suitable for an additional route, including the applicant's safety record, previous on-time performance and level of service and availability of aircraft and pilots. The CAAC will consider the market conditions applicable to any given route before such route is allocated to one or more airlines. Generally, the CAAC will permit additional airlines to service a route that is already being serviced only when there is strong demand for a particular route relative to the available supply. The CAAC's current general policy is to require the passenger load factor of one or two airlines on a particular route to reach a certain level before another carrier is permitted to commence operations on such route.

Regional Route Rights

Hong Kong routes and the corresponding landing rights were formerly derived from the Sino-British air services agreement. In February 2000, the PRC government, acting through the CAAC, and Hong Kong signed the Air Transportation Arrangement between mainland China and Hong Kong. The Air Transportation Arrangement provides for equal opportunity for airlines based in Hong Kong and mainland China. Competition from airlines based in Hong Kong increased after the execution of the Air Transportation Arrangement. The CAAC normally will not allocate an international route or a Hong Kong route to more than one domestic airline unless certain criteria, including minimum load factors on existing flights, are met. There is more than one Chinese airline company on certain of our Hong Kong routes.

The CAAC and the Economic Development and Labor Bureau of Hong Kong entered into an agreement in 2007 to further expand the Air Transportation Arrangement. This agreement increases the routes between Hong Kong and mainland China to expand coverage to most major cities in mainland China. The capacity limits for passenger and/or cargo services on most routes will also be gradually lifted. Beginning in 2007, each side designated three airline companies to operate passenger and/or cargo flights and another airline company to operate all-cargo flights on the majority of the routes between Hong Kong and mainland China.

On December 15, 2008, mainland China and Taiwan commenced direct air and sea transport and postal services, ending a nearly six-decade ban on regular links between the two sides since 1949. Under a historic agreement signed by the governments of mainland China and Taiwan in early November 2008, the new air links expanded from weekend charters to a daily service, with the two sides operating a total of 108 flights per week in 2008 and approximately 270 and 370 regular direct flights per week in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Mainland China and Taiwan agreed to increase flight destinations for air links between the two sides in mainland China to 33 airports in various PRC cities in 2010, while flight destinations in Taiwan continue to include eight airports in various cities in Taiwan. At the end of 2012, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 616 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China and Taiwan to 64. The two sides also previously agreed to launch chartered cargo flights between two terminals in mainland China, namely, Shanghai Pudong and Guangzhou airports, and two terminals in Taiwan, namely, Taoyuan and Kaohsiung airports. On August 12, 2013, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 670 per week and add three terminals of chartered cargo flights in mainland China, namely, Tianjin, Zhengzhou and Ningbo airports. At the end of 2014, mainland China and Taiwan agreed to increase the total number of flights to 924 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China to 65. In April 2015, the fifth batch of Mainland pilot cities was opened for individual tour to Taiwan, including Haikou, Hohhot, Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Changzhou, Zhoushan, Huizhou, Weihai, Longyan, Guilin and Xuzhou, and the number of Mainland cities with free line tour to Taiwan has reached 47.

International Route Rights

International route rights, along with the corresponding landing rights, are derived from air services agreements negotiated between the PRC government, acting through the CAAC, and the government of the relevant foreign country. Each government grants to the other the right to designate one or more domestic airlines to operate scheduled services between certain points within each country. The CAAC awards the relevant route to an airline based on various criteria, including:

Although hub location is an important criterion, an airline may be awarded a route that does not originate from an airport where it has a hub. The route rights awarded do not have a fixed expiry date and can be terminated at the discretion of the CAAC.

Airfare Pricing Policy

The PRC Civil Aviation Law provides that airfares for domestic routes are determined jointly by the CAAC and the agency of the State Council responsible for price control, primarily based upon average airline operating costs and market conditions.

The CAAC and the NDRC jointly publish pricing guidelines from time to time, which set forth the basic airfare levels and permitted ranges. Pursuant to the current pricing guidelines, the basic airfares for most domestic routes are the published airfares implemented by Chinese airlines immediately prior to the approval of the Pricing Reform Plan. Except for certain domestic routes, the actual airfare set by each Chinese airline for its domestic routes cannot be 25% than the basic airfare. Domestic routes that are not subject to the deviation range restrictions include short-haul routes between cities in the same province or autonomous region, or between a municipality and adjacent provinces, autonomous regions or another municipality. Certain tourist routes and routes served by only one Chinese airline are not subject to the bottom range restriction. The CAAC and the NDRC will announce the routes that are not subject to the deviation range restrictions through the airfare information system known as Airtis.net. Chinese airlines may apply to the CAAC and the NDRC for exemption from the bottom range restriction for a particular route. Chinese airlines are also required to file the actual airfare they set for their domestic routes within the ranges through Airtis.net 30 days prior to its implementation.

The CAAC and the NDRC will regularly review the average operating costs of Chinese airlines, and may adjust the basic airfares for particular domestic routes that, in their view, are not at a reasonable level. The CAAC and NDRC jointly issued a notice on April 13, 2010, effective on June 1, 2010, pursuant to which airlines may set first-class and business-class airfares in accordance with market prices, subject to relevant PRC laws. Such pricing must be filed 30 days before effectiveness with the CAAC and NDRC. Efforts by the Chinese regulators to promote a sale market with fair competition will also help provide a favorable environment for our business growth.

At the end of 2014, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated The Notice on Further Improving the Problems About Civil Aviation Domestic Air Transport Price Policy, which lifted the control over the civil domestic airlines cargo freight rate and changed the prices of specific airlines from government- oriented pricing to market-oriented pricing.

At the end of 2015, the CAAC announced the Implementation Opinion on the Reform of Mechanism of Prices and Service Fee in Civil Aviation Transport , which sets the goal to generally lift the control over the prices and service fee in competitive part of civil aviation transport by 2017, and to generally set up a basically optimized, scientific, standardized, transparent and market-oriented pricing regulatory system by 2020.

In October 2016, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated the Circular on the Further Reform of Passenger Transport Price Policy in Civil Aviation Domestic Air Transport, which loosened the control over the civil domestic airlines passenger transportation and changed the prices from government- oriented pricing to market-oriented pricing. According to the circular, the price of routes under 800km or routes above 800km that are in competition with high-speed rails for passenger transportation can be determined independently.

Under the PRC Civil Aviation Law, maximum airfares on regional and international routes are set in accordance with the terms of the air services agreements pursuant to which these routes are operated. In the absence of an air services agreement, airfares are set by the airlines themselves or by the CAAC with reference to comparable market prices, taking into account the international airfare standards established through the coordination of the International Air Transport Association, which organizes periodic air traffic conferences for coordinating international airfares. Discounts are permitted on regional and international routes. For the airline industry in China as a whole, the airfare per kilometer is substantially higher for regional and international routes than that for domestic routes.

Acquisition of Aircraft and Spare Parts

We are permitted to import aircraft, aircraft spare parts and other equipment for our own use from manufacturers through EAIEC, which is 55% owned by CEA Holding and 45% owned by our Company. This gives us a sale market with fair competition flexibility with our inventory management by allowing us to maintain a relatively lower overall inventory level of aircraft parts and equipment than we otherwise would have to maintain. We are still required to obtain approval from the NDRC and may be subject to appraisal of the relevant competent authorities for any import of aircraft. We generally pay a commission to EAIEC in connection with these imports.

Domestic Fuel Supply and Pricing

The Civil Aviation Oil Supply Company, or the CAOSC, which is supervised by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission, or the SASAC, is currently the dominant civil aviation fuel supply company in China. We currently purchase a significant portion of our domestic fuel supply from CAOSC. The PRC government determines the fuel price at which the CAOSC acquires fuel from domestic suppliers and the CAAC issues a guidance price. The retail price at which the CAOSC resells fuel to airline customers is set within a specified range based on this guidance price.

In 2005, the NDRC, the CAAC and the China Air Transport Association jointly launched the linkage mechanism for aviation fuel prices and transportation prices by airline companies. The fuel surcharge standards for domestic passenger routes were adjusted according to a series of notices regarding the adjustments of passenger fuel surcharges on domestic routes issued by the NDRC and the CAAC from 2006 to 2008. In the second half of 2008, international crude oil prices decreased significantly, leading the NDRC and the CAAC to release an announcement on January 14, 2009 to suspend fuel surcharges for domestic passenger routes with effect from January 15, 2009. A Notice Concerning the Relevant Issues on Establishment Linkage Mechanism for Passenger Fuel Surcharges on Domestic Routes and the Price of Domestic Aviation Coal Oil Fuel by NDRC and CAAC, with effect from November 14, 2009, provided that fuel surcharges shall be charged by the airlines, at the airline's discretion, but within certain limits as set forth in the notice. On March 31, 2010, the NDRC and CAAC issued the Notice Regarding the Publication of Passenger Fuel Surcharges Rate on Domestic Routes, which reduced the standard fuel surcharge by 3.1% for domestic routes. In addition, on March 31, 2011, the NDRC and CAAC issued another similar notice, which further adjusted the standard fuel surcharge downwards. From August 1, 2011, according to the Announcement on the Linking Mechanism for Fuel Surcharges and Aviation Coal Oil Fuel, issued by the NDRC and CAAC, the rate of domestic route fuel surcharges will be adjusted each month if the difference in consolidated purchase costs for domestic aviation coal oil fuel exceeds RMB250 per ton.

On March 24, 2015, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated the Notice on Adjustment of the Linking Mechanism for Fuel Surcharges and Aviation Coal Oil Fuel in Passenger Transport of Domestic Airlines , in which they decided to increase the base price of aviation coal oil fuel form RMB4,140 per ton to RMB5,000 per ton.

Safety

The CAAC has made the continued improvement of air traffic safety in China a high priority. The CAAC is responsible for the establishment of operational safety, maintenance and training standards for all Chinese airlines, which have been formulated based on international standards. Each Chinese airline is required to provide flight safety reports to the CAAC, including reports of flight incidents or accidents involving its aircraft, which occurred during the relevant reporting period and other safety related problems. The CAAC conducts safety inspections on each airline periodically.

The CAAC oversees the training of most Chinese airline pilots through its operation of the pilot training college. The CAAC implements a unified pilot certification process applicable to all Chinese airline pilots and is responsible for the issuance, renewal, suspension and cancellation of pilot licenses. Each pilot is required to pass the CAAC-administered examinations before obtaining a pilot license and is subject to an annual examination in order to have such certification renewed.

All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines, other than a limited number of leased aircraft registered in foreign countries, are required to be registered with the CAAC. All of our aircraft are registered with the CAAC. All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines must have a valid certificate of airworthiness issued and annually renewed by the CAAC. In addition, maintenance permits are issued to a Chinese airline only after the maintenance capabilities of that Chinese airline have been examined and assessed by the CAAC. These maintenance permits are renewed annually. All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines may be maintained and repaired only by CAAC certified maintenance facilities, whether located within or outside China. Aircraft maintenance personnel must be certified by the CAAC before assuming aircraft maintenance posts.

In early 2013, the CAAC amended the original Civil Aviation Incidents Standards and published the new Civil Aviation Incidents Standards which became effective as of March 1, 2013. The CAAC amended the Management Rules on Safety Information of Civil Aviation which became effective on April 4, 2016 and required that related Chinese airlines should arrange a certain number of specialists that satisfied with special requirements to take charge of the management of safety information. The CAAC promulgated the new Administrative Provisions on Emergencies of China's Civil Aviation which became effective from April 17, 2016 and formulated the duties and responsibilities of Chinese airlines on the prevention and emergency preparedness, prediction and early warning, emergency disposal, handling and other emergency work of civil aviation. We will ensure our relevant employees implement the new standards, which will enable us to enhance our daily operations. For more information on the safety standards and measures implemented by us, see "– Maintenance and Safety – Safety." In 2016, the CAAC promulgated the new Administrative Provisions on Civil Aviation Safety Information. As a result, we formulated new internal regulations on aviation safety information to strengthen the safety of our information system.

Security

The CAAC establishes and oversees the implementation of security standards and regulations based on the PRC laws and standards established by international civil aviation organizations. Each airline is required to submit to the CAAC an aviation security handbook describing specific security procedures established by the airline for the day-to-day operations and security training for staff. Such security procedures must be formulated based on the relevant CAAC regulations. Chinese airlines that operate international routes must also adopt security measures in accordance with the requirements of the relevant international agreements and applicable local laws. We believe that we comply with all applicable security regulations.

Noise and Environmental Regulation

All airlines and airports in China are required to comply with noise and environmental regulations of the State Environmental Protection Agency that are modeled on international standards. The CAAC regulations allow Chinese airports to refuse take-off and landing rights to any aircraft that does not comply with State noise regulations. We believe that we comply with all applicable noise and environmental regulations.

Chinese Airport Policy

Prior to September 2003, all civilian airports in China were operated directly by the CAAC or by provincial or municipal governments. In September 2003, as part of the restructuring of the aviation industry in China, the CAAC transferred 93 civilian airports to provincial or municipal governments. The CAAC retained the authority to determine the take-off and landing charges, as well as charges on airlines for the use of airports and airport services. Prior to 2004, Chinese airlines were generally required to collect from their passengers on behalf of the CAAC a levy for contribution to the civil aviation infrastructure fund, which was used for improving China's civilian airport facilities. Our revenue for the previous years is shown net of this levy. In 2003, the levy was 5% of domestic airfares and 2% of international airfares. The levy was waived by the CAAC from May 1, 2003 to December 31, 2003. With effect from September 2004, the civil aviation infrastructure levies, now paid to the Ministry of Finance of the PRC (“MOF”), have been reflected in airfares of Chinese airlines rather than collected as a separate levy.

On December 28, 2007, the CAAC and the NDRC released the Implementing Scheme for the Civil Aviation Airport Charges Reform Implementation Plan, which was implemented on March 1, 2008. This new plan divides airport charges into three parts: charges related to airline businesses; charges related to important non-airline items; and other non-airline charges. The charges related to airline businesses and important non-airline items must follow the national guided prices, in which the standard prices are rarely increased, while reduced rates can be negotiated between the airport or the service provider and the users. The plan grants us the right to negotiate with airports on the airport charges.

The civil aviation infrastructure levy was paid to the MOF and refunded again from July 1, 2008 to June 30, 2009, according to one of the ten measures announced by the CAAC in December 2008 in response to the global economic downturn. The refunded levy for China's aviation industry amounted to approximately RMB4,000 million in total. The ten measures also include measures to enhance safety, reduce taxes, invest in infrastructure and optimize the airspace and air routes.

Limitation on Foreign Ownership

The CAAC's present policies limit foreign ownership in Chinese airlines. Under these limits, non-Chinese residents and Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan residents cannot hold a majority of our total outstanding shares individually or together. As of December 31, 2013, approximately 12.4% of our total outstanding shares were held by non-Chinese residents and Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan residents or legal entities (excluding the qualified foreign institutional investors that are approved to invest in the A Share market of the PRC). For PRC air transportation companies, pursuant to the new Catalog of Industries for Guiding Foreign Investment, jointly promulgated by the NDRC and MOC on March 10, 2015, Chinese investors should be the controlling shareholders of a PRC air transportation company and the total shares held by foreign investment enterprises and its associated enterprises are not permitted to exceed 25% of the total shares of a Chinese airline.

Competition

Domestic

We compete against our domestic competitors primarily based on safety, quality of service and frequency of scheduled flights. With the combination of our dominant position in Shanghai, our route network and our continued commitment to safety and service quality, we believe that we are well-positioned to compete against our domestic competitors in the growing airline industry in China. However, domestic competition from other Chinese airlines has been increasing recently as our competitors have increased capacity and expanded operations by adding new routes or additional flights to existing routes and acquiring other airlines. In addition, we have faced intense competition from entrants to our domestic markets as new investments into China's civil aviation industry have been made following the CAAC's relaxation of certain private-sector investment rules in July 2005. In December 2008, the CAAC announced ten measures to protect and encourage the domestic aviation industry, one of which provides that no new Chinese airlines will be licensed to incorporate and operate aviation businesses before 2010. In October 2010, the CAAC announced that the suspension of approvals for new Chinese airlines companies would continue for an indefinite period. However, if the restriction is lifted in the future, we expect that competition from other Chinese airlines on our routes will further intensify.

There are currently more than 50 Chinese airlines in mainland China, and we compete with many of them on various domestic routes. All of these airlines operate under the regulatory supervision of the CAAC. Our Company, Air China Limited, or Air China, which is based in Beijing and listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the London Stock Exchange, and China Southern Airlines Company Limited, or China Southern, which is based in Guangzhou and listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, are the three leading air carriers in China, both in terms of revenue tonne-kilometers and size of operations.

Each of the domestic airlines competes against other airlines operating the same routes or flying indirect routes to the same destinations. Our principal competitors in the domestic market are China Southern and Air China, which also provide transportation services on some of our routes, principally routes originating from the major air transportation hubs in China, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing. Some of these routes are among our most heavily traveled routes. Since most of the major domestic airlines operate routes from their respective hubs to Shanghai, we also compete against virtually all of the major domestic airlines on these routes. In addition, we are facing increasing competition from certain low-cost carriers, such as Spring Airlines, in the domestic market. Spring Airlines competes with us, as it operates daily domestic routes to certain destinations such as Harbin, Shenyang, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Sanya, Kunming and Chongqing, which are covered in our domestic routes. The “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” for civil aviation industry in China encourages low- cost airlines to enter into major logistics market gradually. In February 2014, CAAC issued Guidance on Facilitating Low-cost Aviation Development which aims at supporting the development of domestic low-cost airlines. This will further intensify the competition in domestic aviation market. However, we believe we are well-positioned to compete against domestic low-cost carriers due to our expansive route network, competitive pricing, greater availability of flight services to these destinations and strong brand name.

We also face competition from other domestic carriers in our air cargo business. However, we believe our absorption of Shanghai Airlines in early 2010 will strengthen our market positioning within the domestic market, particularly with respect to routes to and from Shanghai. We have also recently initiated a strategy to accelerate the transition of our role from air cargo transportation enterprise to aviation and logistics services provider. On December 26, 2012, we established China Eastern Airlines Logistic Company by merging China Cargo Airlines and Shanghai Eastern Airlines Logistics Co., Ltd. ("Eastern Logistics"), which we believe will facilitate our development of services with respect to courier, logistics solutions and aviation trade and on-site logistics services platforms. In 2016, due to factors including the slowdown in the growth rate of the total world trade volume and fierce market competition, the air cargo transportation industry had relatively underperformed. As a result, we sold Eastern Logistics to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment on February 8, 2017.

Domestic Rail

The PRC government is aggressively implementing the expansion of its domestic high-speed rail network, which has provided train services at speeds of up to 350 km per hour connecting major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Hong Kong. The expansion of the coverage of this network and improvements in railway service quality, increased passenger capacity and stations located closer to urban centers than competing airports could enhance the relative competitiveness of the railway service and affect our market share on some of our key routes, in particular our routes of between 500km to 800km. The high-speed railway connecting Beijing and Shanghai commenced operations in July 2011, and has substantially affected our Beijing and Shanghai routes, as well as routes between Shanghai and Jinan, Beijing and Nanjing, Shanghai and Xuzhou, Shanghai and Tianjin and Beijing and Changzhou.

With the establishment of a PRC national high-speed railway network, we will inevitably face increasing competition and pricing pressures from this railway service. Therefore, we have been taking active measures in decreasing the number of short-haul routes that overlap with such high-speed train routes, as well as adjusting certain airfare prices on affected routes, facilitating "air-to-railway" transfers and allocating flight resources to alternative routes or medium-to- long-haul routes that have higher profitability, higher demand and lessened competition. In addition, in 2013, we developed ground connection services such as Air-Rail Service and Air-Bus Service and cooperated with Disney, brand hotel groups, and renowned international travel enterprises to develop travel products. We expect to continue exploring cooperation opportunities with domestic railway authorities, while maintaining and strengthening our other competitive advantages, which include providing high quality services, increasing our pre-sale product promotions and developing our transfer services.

Regional

Our Hong Kong routes are highly competitive. The primary competitors on our Hong Kong routes are Cathay Pacific Airways ("Cathay"), and Hong Kong Dragon Airlines Limited ("Dragonair"). We currently operate approximately 22 flight routes between Chinese cities and Hong Kong. Cathay and Dragonair compete with us on several of these routes, particularly the Shanghai-Hong Kong route. We also face competition from Spring Airlines on our Shanghai-Hong Kong, Hangzhou-Hong Kong, Nanjing-Hong Kong and Shanghai-Macau routes. The Air Transportation Arrangement signed between the PRC government and the administrative government of Hong Kong in February 2000 provides for equal opportunity for airlines based in Hong Kong and mainland China. As a result, Dragonair has increased the frequency of its flights on several of our Hong Kong routes, resulting in intensified competition. We also face competition from Dragonair in our Hong Kong cargo operations. Cathay, which owns Dragonair, also cooperates with Air China and operates all passenger services of Cathay and Air China between Hong Kong and mainland China as joint venture routes under code-share and revenue and cost-pooling arrangements. This may further intensify the competition on the routes between Hong Kong and mainland China and impose greater competitive pressure on the other airline companies operating on these routes.

Prior to 2003, there was no direct air link between mainland China and Taiwan. As such, our operations on the regional routes benefited from traffic between Hong Kong and mainland China ultimately originating in Taiwan. Following a series of limited chartered flights operated between a number of mainland Chinese cities and Taiwan, from July 2008, 36 direct flights between Taiwan and mainland China were permitted on weekends from Fridays through Mondays on a regular basis. On December 15, 2008, mainland China and Taiwan commenced direct air and sea transport and postal services, ending a nearly six-decade ban on regular links between the two sides since 1949. Under a historic agreement signed by mainland China and Taiwan in early November 2008, the new air links expanded from weekend charters to a daily service, 108 flights per week in 2008 and approximately 270 and 370 regular direct flights per week in 2009 and 2010, respectively. At the end of 2011, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 616 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China and Taiwan to 50. At the end of 2013, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 786 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China and Taiwan to 54. At the end of 2014, mainland China and Taiwan agreed to increase the total number of flights to 924 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China to 65. In April 2015, the fifth batch of Mainland pilot cities was opened for individual tour to Taiwan, including Haikou, Hohhot, Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Changzhou, Zhoushan, Huizhou, Weihai, Longyan, Guilin and Xuzhou, and the number of Mainland cities with free line tour to Taiwan has reached 47.

The two sides also previously agreed to launch chartered cargo flights between two terminals in mainland China, namely, Shanghai Pudong and Guangzhou airports, and two terminals in Taiwan, namely, Taoyuan and Kaohsiung airports. Previously, a substantial number of our passengers travelled on our Hong Kong routes in order to connect flights to and/or from Taiwan. However, with the increasing availability of direct flights between mainland China and Taiwan, we may experience a significant decline in passenger traffic volumes on our Hong Kong routes and, as such, our revenues derived from operating such routes could be materially and adversely affected. We currently operate flights to Taipei from Shanghai, Nanjing, Xi'an, Kunming, Wuhan, Hefei, Nanchang, Ningbo, Taiyuan, Qingdao, Wuxi, Yancheng, Yinchuan and Lijiang. In addition, we signed a strategic framework agreement in April 2010 with China Airlines of Taiwan to cooperate on routes to and from the PRC and Taiwan. According to the Ninth Meeting of Cross-strait Air Transportation, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights per week in 2014. According to the Tenth Meeting of Cross-strait Air Transportation in 2015, the two sides agreed to have Changzhou and Shaoshan as two new regular passenger shipping point. We plan to establish the Changzhou-Taipei route with three flights per week. As the market is expanding for individual tourist, we aim to target our sales to these customers.

We believe we will benefit from expanding our market share in Taiwan-mainland China direct flight services as based on the more and more frequent communication between Taiwan and mainland China. However, as one of the several airlines offering Taiwan-mainland China direct flight services, we cannot assure you that we will maintain or will continue to be allocated sufficient Taiwan-mainland China routes or that the yields on these routes would be adequate to offset any material adverse effect on our revenues derived from operating our Hong Kong routes.

We compete with Air Macau on the Shanghai Pudong-Macau route. Air Macau's routes also provide an alternative to our Hong Kong routes for passengers travelling between Taiwan and mainland China.

International

We compete with Air China, China Southern and many other well-established foreign carriers on our international routes. Most of our international competitors are very well-known international carriers and are substantially larger than we are and have substantially greater financial resources than we do. Many of our international competitors also have significantly longer operating histories and greater name recognition than we do. Some international passengers, who may perceive these airlines to be safer and provide better service than Chinese airlines in general, may prefer to travel on these airlines. In addition, many of our international competitors have more extensive sales networks and utilize more developed reservation systems than ours, or engage in promotional activities, such as frequent flyer programs, that may be more popular than ours and effectively enhance their ability to attract international passengers.

We also face significant competition in our international cargo operations. Moreover, China and the United States entered into an air service agreement on July 24, 2004. Pursuant to this agreement, five additional airlines from each country are allowed to serve the China-U.S. market over the next few years. Another air transport agreement was signed between China and the United States on July 9, 2007 in order to increase travel and tourism and promote cultural, business and governmental exchanges between China and the United States, as well as to promote the ultimate objective of full liberalization of the bilateral air transport market. A trade services agreement was also signed between China and ASEAN countries in January 2007, and became effective in July 2007 to remove the restrictions on China's entry into foreign freight markets. Air China operates the largest number of international routes among all Chinese airlines. Beijing, the hub of Air China's operations, is the destination for most international flights to China. We primarily compete with Air China, All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, and Spring Airlines on our passenger routes to Japan. On our Korean routes, we compete with China Southern Airlines, Air China and Asiana Airlines and Korean Air. Our principal competitors on our flights to Southeast Asia include Thai Airways International, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia and Vietnam Airlines. On our passenger flights to the United States, our principal competitors include Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, American Airlines, Air China and Air Canada. On our European routes, our competitors include Air China, the Air France-KLM Group, Virgin Atlantic Airways, British Airways, Lufthansa German Airlines and Alitalia. We compete with Air China, China Southern Airlines and Qantas Airways on our Australian routes. We compete in the international market based on price, service quality, frequency of scheduled flights and convenient sales arrangements.

To improve our competitive position in international markets, we have established additional dedicated overseas sales offices, launched our own frequent flyer program, participated in "Asia Miles", a popular frequent flyer program in Asia, and entered into code-sharing arrangements with a number of foreign airlines. We have also improved our online reservation and payment system. In addition, in June 2011, we joined SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance and frequent flyer mileage program that includes, among others, international carriers such as Delta, China Southern, Alitalia, Air France and KLM. As a member of SkyTeam alliance, our Elite members can enjoy approximately 516 lounges worldwide. In 2013, we implemented code-sharing programs covering 242 routes with 11 SkyTeam member airlines. See " – Marketing and Sales – SkyTeam Alliance." In the meantime, we also started code-sharing cooperation with seven non-SkyTeam member airlines, covering more than 150 routes, including Japan Airlines Corporation and Qantas Airways Limited. In 2014, we proactively promoted international cooperation among members and non-members airlines of SkyTeam Alliance at various levels and expanded its route network to increase its brand recognition. We implemented transit service cooperation with China Airlines, Delta Airlines and Air France between different terminals at Shanghai Pudong International Airport Co., Ltd. We facilitate joint sales by optimizing transit connection with Delta Airlines and enhanced co- operations with Air France by increasing the number of code-share flights. We also comprehensively improved cooperation on the China-Australia route by establishing joint operation with Qantas. In 2015, we actively responded to the industry competition, strove for additions of air traffic rights and time slot resources in hub markets and core markets, steadily improved the aircraft utilization rate and consolidated and expanded market share in the three largest hubs and core markets. Based on the SkyTeam Alliance platform, we enhanced our strategic cooperation with Delta Air Lines and cooperated with Air France and Qantas to develop a highly efficient and convenient flight network, which covered the whole country and connected to the whole world. In 2016, we proactively promoted the establishment of transportation hubs with the opening of various international routes for long-haul flights and an enhanced coverage of our transportation network. With Shanghai as the core hub, we added six international routes for long-haul flights to our network, connecting Shanghai and Prague, Amsterdam, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Chicago and Brisbane, respectively. We provided more frequent flight services on routes connecting Shanghai and New York City, Los Angeles, Sydney and Melbourne. We added routes connecting Kunming and Sydney, Qingdao and San Francisco, Nanjing and Vancouver and Hangzhou and Sydney. Last, we stabilized the allocation of our flight capacities for Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia markets. As a result of these enhanced transit connection and expanded transit routes structures, in 2016, we experienced approximately 26.8%, 63.8% and 43.1% year-on-year growth in passenger flight capacity for Europe, North America and Australia markets, respectively; and our inter-airline transit volume and revenue grew by 24.2% and 21.4%, respectively. As of the end of 2016, by connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, our flights had access to 1,062 destinations in 177 countries. Meanwhile, we also continued to strengthen our cooperation with airlines which are not members of the SkyTeam Alliance. Due to our increasingly enhanced cooperation with Qantas Airways in joint sales, and ground services etc., and focusing around 69 routes, we and Qantas Airways opened up our respective VIP lounges in the PRC and Australia to each other. Through cooperating with British Airways, Royal Brunei Airlines and China Express Airlines in code sharing, we optimized our transit connection at London Heathrow Airport and enhanced the level of coverage of our route network in Southeast Asia.

Maintenance and Safety

The rapid increase in air traffic volume in China in recent years has put pressure on many components of China's airline industry, including air traffic control systems, the availability of qualified flight personnel and airport facilities. In recent years, the CAAC has placed increasing emphasis on the safety of airline operations in China and has implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the safety record of the airlines. Our ability to provide safe air transportation in the future depends on the availability of qualified and experienced pilots in China and the improvement of maintenance services, national air traffic control and navigational systems and ground control operations at Chinese airports. We have a good safety record and regard the safety of our flights as the most important component of our operations.

Maintenance Capability

Through our cooperation with service providers and ventures with other companies, we currently perform regular repair and maintenance checks on all of our aircraft, which include D1 checks, C checks and other maintenance services for certain aircraft and other flight equipment. We also perform certain maintenance services for other Chinese airlines. Our primary aircraft maintenance base is at Hongqiao International Airport. In 2011, we commenced use of a newly constructed wide-body aviation hangar at Hongqiao International Airport, which can accommodate the maintenance of two of our wide-body aircraft and one narrow-body aircraft. We have additional maintenance bases at Pudong International Airport and some of our provincial hubs. Our maintenance staff in Shanghai supervises the operation of our regional maintenance facilities. We employed approximately 11,621 workers as maintenance and engineering personnel as of December 31, 2016. Some of our aircraft maintenance personnel have participated in the manufacturer training and support programs sponsored by Airbus and Boeing. In order to enhance our maintenance capabilities and to reduce our maintenance costs, we have acquired additional maintenance equipment, tools and fixtures and other assets over the past few years, such as airborne testing and aircraft data recovery and analysis equipment. Our avionics equipment is primarily maintained and repaired at our electronic maintenance equipment center located in Shanghai.

We entered into a joint venture with Honeywell International Inc. (“Honeywell”), formerly Allied Signal Inc., in Shanghai for performing maintenance and repairs on aircraft wheel assemblies and brakes. Since October 1997, we have operated a maintenance hangar at Hongqiao International Airport, which has the capacity to house two wide-body aircraft. We and Rockwell Collins International Inc. of the United States have also co-established Collins Aviation Maintenance Service Shanghai Limited, which is primarily engaged in the provision of repair and maintenance services for avionics and aircraft in-flight entertainment facilities in China. We and Rockwell Collins International Inc. hold 35% and 65%, respectively, of the equity interests in the joint venture. Moreover, in November 2002, we, jointly with Aircraft Engineering Investment Limited, established Shanghai Eastern Aircraft Maintenance Limited, in which we hold 60% of the equity interests, to provide supplemental avionics and other maintenance services to us. STA, which was established in 2004 by us and Singapore Technologies Aerospace Ltd. under a joint venture agreement dated March 10, 2003, also provides us with aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul services. We entered into repair agreements of seven types of electronics materials with Honeywell and we expect in the next two years to save US$338,000 of material repairing costs.

On November 6, 2007, we entered into a joint venture with United Technologies Corp., or UTC, to establish Shanghai Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Engine Maintenance Co., Ltd., or Pratt & Whitney, for performing maintenance and repairs on aircraft engines. We and UTC contributed US$20,145,000 and US$19,355,000, respectively, to the registered capital and hold 51% and 49%, respectively, of the equity interests in the joint venture. Moreover, after our absorption of Shanghai Airlines, we took over its 15% equity interest in Boeing Shanghai Aviation Services Co., Ltd. ("Boeing Shanghai"). As of December 31, 2013, Boeing (China) Investment Co., Ltd., Shanghai Airport (Group) Co., Ltd. and Boeing (Asia) Services Investment Limited hold 35.3%, 25.0% and 24.7%, respectively, of the remaining equity interest. Boeing Shanghai was founded in 2006 with a registered capital of US$85,000,000, and operates a maintenance hangar with the capacity to provide aircraft modification and maintenance services for two wide-body aircraft and one narrow-body aircraft and provides aircraft modification and maintenance services. In addition, we also hold 50% of Shanghai Airlines' previous equity interest in Shanghai Hute Aviation Technology Co., Ltd. ("Shanghai Hute"). The remaining equity interest is held by Sichuan Haite High-Tech Co., Ltd. Shanghai Hute was founded in 2003 with a registered capital of RMB30,000,000, and provides maintenance services for aviation equipment. The enhancement of our maintenance capabilities allows us to perform various maintenance operations in-house and continue to maintain lower spare parts inventory levels.

Since December 2014, we have adopted an innovative asset management model and established Eastern Airlines Technology Co. Ltd. ("Eastern Technology"), a wholly-owned subsidiary specializing in aircraft maintenance, to explore the transformation of supporting assets to operational assets.

In 2015, Eastern Technology engaged in aircraft maintenance, raised its standards for aircraft maintenance and construction management to facilitate our centralized control over aircraft maintenance, and focused on high-end premium operations, such as providing maintenance services for aircraft for Chinese routes operated by international airlines and sharing of aviation equipment.

In 2016, other airlines such as Singapore Airlines, AirAsia and Royal Brunei Airlines became customers of Eastern Technology, whose area of operation expanded to locations including Xi’an, Jinan, Wuhan and Wuxi.

Safety

The provision of safe and reliable air services for all of our customers is one of our primary operational objectives. We implement uniform safety standards and safety-related training programs in all operations. Our flight safety management division monitors and supervises our flight safety. We have had a flight safety committee since the commencement of our business, comprised of members of our senior management, to formulate policies and implement routine safety checks at our Shanghai headquarters and all provincial hubs. The flight safety committee meets monthly to review our overall operation safety record during the most recent quarter and to adopt measures to improve flight safety based upon these reviews. We have also implemented an employee incentive program, using a system of monetary rewards and discipline, to encourage compliance with the CAAC safety standards and our safety procedures. We periodically evaluate the skills, experience and safety records of our pilots in order to maintain strict control over the quality of our pilot crews. In 2011, we were awarded the "Flight Safety Five-star Award" by CAAC for our commitment to aviation and operations safety.

In 2013, we continued to strengthen our Safety Management System ("SMS"). We issued work implementation plans that provided specific measures to address risks such as lighting strikes, hard aircraft landings and communication systems failures. In addition, we established the Nantong Airport training base to provide additional training programs for our flight crews. Furthermore, we formulated the "Assessment and Remuneration Packages of Star-rating flight Crew Members", which commenced star-rating assessment of all flight crew members in terms of flight safety, flight quality, discipline and provision of services. The management of each of our provincial hub operations is responsible for the flight safety operations at the respective hub under the supervision of our flight safety management division. We prepare monthly safety bulletins detailing recent developments in safety practices and procedures and distribute them to each of our flight crew, the maintenance department and the flight safety management department. The CAAC also requires us to prepare and submit semi-annual and annual flight safety reports.

Regarding the strengthening of the SMS, we have (i) organized training for the administrators of safety management of all operating units, deepened the understanding for the construction of SMS, laying the groundwork for SMS; (ii) followed our plans and orderly commenced the construction of the analytical network. We had a number of cooperation meetings, discussing the master framework, which carries the system. We also introduced the concept of safety indicators for operational progress, rendering safety management more comprehensible; and (iii) continuously improved the risks database of the relevant routes and airports, strengthening the application of the different databases on the actual process of operation.

In 2014, we continued to facilitate the construction and application of the SMS and strictly implementing risk management. We also put greater efforts in safety inspection and supervision as well as fulfillment of responsibilities in relation to safety enhancement. We enhanced its flight training management and commenced specialized training covering pilots management and transition to B777-300ER aircraft to reinforce the foundations of flight safety. Emphasizing technology applications, we established a research institute of flight safety technology application to provide intellectual support to our ongoing safe operations.

All of our jet passenger aircraft pilots participated in the manufacturer training and support programs sponsored by Airbus and Boeing and are required to undergo recurrent flight simulator training and to participate in a flight theory course periodically. We use flight simulators for A320, A330, A340, B737NG, B737-300, B777 aircraft at our own training facility, the training facility located in the CAAC training center or overseas training facilities.

We placed great emphasis on ensuring safe operation and will continue to do so. In 2015, we established an integrated management and control model incorporating regional management, safety audit and safety supervision to further improve our safety management and control system, and pushed ahead the establishment of the Management of Risk Control System (MORCS) to enhance safety risk prevention on an ongoing basis. We have also promoted phase 2 of the Electronic Flight Bag, focusing on technical difficulties such as operation of above plateau airports, and has been enhancing our research capability in flying technology, providing psychological support to our pilots and improving emergency drills to implement in-flight safety requirements strictly.

In 2016, we further enhanced our safety management system by strengthening the enforcement of safety responsibilities, strengthening our safety supervision and inspection, strengthening our risk control over special routes and international routes for long-haul flights, enhancing our operational risk alert abilities, boosting the quality of training for our pilots, improving our system for developing talents with core skills, enhancing our ability in handling security-related contingencies, and strictly implementing safety requirements for our flights. In 2016, we had 1,956,100 safe flying hours and 822,400 take-off and landing flights, which is an increase of 8.4% and 6.4%, respectively, over the same period last year.

Cyber-security

With respect to our internal policies on cyber-security and internet safety, we have established an information safety management system and issued internal regulations on cyber-security, internal hardware and data safety systems to prevent loss of information due to cyber-security incidents, network outages or hardware incidents. We also plan to implement measures relating to the office environment information safety management and information system emergency management, information system access control, protection from any malicious software, management of information exchange tools and internal review and audit of information safety risks. Furthermore, we have entered into a strategic cooperation plan with the China Information Technology Security Evaluation Center by which their trained engineers evaluate our internal data security policies and cyber-security measures. In 2012, we established and announced two internal regulations relating to cyber-security, namely, China Eastern Airlines Information Security Management Regulation and China Eastern Airlines Information System Application and Development Safety Regulation and in 2013, we established and announced another two internal regulations relating to cyber-security, namely, China Eastern Airlines Information Security Incident Management Regulation and China Eastern Airlines Information System Classification Measures, which we believe will strengthen our information safety management systems and overall cyber-security defenses. During the year ended December 31, 2014, we did not experience any material cyber-security incidents or related losses.

In 2014, regarding the risks in relation to internet security of the aviation section, we took the following preventive measures: (i) putting in place a monitoring system; (ii) clarifying the responsibilities relating to internet, mainframe computer, operation and maintenance, product development and management; (iii) having internet security equipment; (iv) having manual inspection and(v) preparing for emergency response.

In June 2014, we promulgated documents Class I to V for CEA Information Security Management System, including directions, management requirements, operation manual and recorded output documents at security level, and passed the ISO27001 (international information security standard) certificate qualification in November 2014. Our internet security policy was synchronized with the ISO27001.

In 2015, we established a routine inspection system and a contingency mechanism for its reporting website for external security breach. The data loss prevention (DLP) project was implemented and our information security management system passed the ISO27000 certification. In the future, we will further improve our security code review and management system; promote the construction of IPS at the internet portal and the information technology disaster backup centre to elevate the overall protection level on our information system security.

In 2016, we conducted information system emergency response training and commissioned the construction of our Xi’an disaster backup facility. In addition, we implemented security code review and security protection around the boundaries of our internet and data centre, optimized the multi-dimensional security protection system and elevated the overall security protection level on our information system.

We did not purchase any insurance for internet security.

Fuel Supplies

Fuel costs represented approximately 21.4% of our operating expense in 2016. Our aviation fuel expenditure in 2016 was RMB19,626 million, a decrease of 3.4% from RMB20,312 million in 2015 decrease in average price of fuel. We currently purchase a significant portion of the aviation fuel for our domestic routes from regional branches of the CAOSC. Fuel costs in China are affected by costs at domestic refineries and limitations in the transportation infrastructure, as well as by insufficient storage facilities for aviation fuel in certain regions of China. Fuel prices at six designated major airports in China, namely, the airports in Shanghai Pudong, Shanghai Hongqiao, Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Tianjin, are set and adjusted once a month by the CAAC in accordance with prevailing fuel prices on the international market. For our international routes, we purchase a portion of our aviation fuel from foreign fuel suppliers located at the destinations of these routes, generally at international market prices.

In 2016, our total aircraft fuel cost was RMB19,626 million, a decrease of 3.5% from RMB20,312 million in 2015. This decrease was primarily due to a decrease in our average price of fuel by 13.6% as compared with last year, partially offset by an increase in our volume of refueling by 11.9% as compared with last year. We cannot assure you that fuel prices will not fluctuate in the future. Further, due to the highly competitive nature of the airline industry and government regulation on airfare pricing, we may be unable to fully or effectively pass on to our customers any increased fuel costs we may encounter in the future. However, we intend to continue focusing on enhancing our jet fuel procurement policies and developing additional internal cost-control measures, which include streamlining the number of aircraft models in our fleet and optimizing route structures, which we believe will enable us to control our fuel costs.

Ground Facilities and Services

The center of our operations is Shanghai, one of China's principal air transportation hubs. Our Shanghai operations are based at Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. We currently also operate from various other airports in China, including Yaoqiang Airport in Jinan, Lukou Airport in Nanjing, Liuting Airport in Qingdao, Luogang Airport in Hefei, Changbei Airport in Nanchang, Wushu Airport in Taiyuan, Zhengding Airport in Shijiazhuang, Lishe Airport in Ningbo, Tianhe Airport in Wuhan, Wujiaba Airport in Kunming and Xianyang Airport in Xi'an. We own hangars, aircraft parking and other airport service facilities at these airports, and provide ground services in these locations. We lease from CEA Holding certain buildings at Hongqiao International Airport where our principal executive offices are located.

We have our own ground services and other operational services, such as aircraft cleaning and refueling and the handling of passengers and cargo for our operations at Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. We also provide ground services for many other airlines that operate to and from Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport.

In-flight meals and other catering services for our Shanghai-originated flights are provided primarily by Shanghai Eastern Air Catering Limited Liability Company, a joint venture company affiliated with CEA Holding. We generally contract with local catering companies for flights originating from other airports.

We incur certain airport usage fees and other charges for services performed by the airports from which we operate flights, such as air traffic control charges, take-off and landing fees, aircraft parking fees and fees payable in connection with the use of passenger waiting rooms and check-in counter space. At domestic airports, such fees are generally charged at rates prescribed by the CAAC, which are lower than rates generally in effect at airports outside China.

Since August 2015, we have been constructing a foreign airline service center and examining the market-oriented operational mechanism for ground services to explore the transformation of supporting assets into operational assets further.

Marketing and Sales

Passenger Operations

Our marketing strategy with respect to passenger operations is primarily aimed at increasing our market share for all categories of air travelers. With respect to our Hong Kong and international routes, we are permitted to market our services based on price. We have limited flexibility in setting our airfares for domestic routes and adjust our domestic airfares in response to market demand. As part of our overall marketing strategy, we emphasize our commitment to safety and service quality. We believe that emphasis on safety is a critical component of our ability to compete successfully.

We have also adopted customized strategies to market our services to particular travelers. We seek to establish long-term customer relationships with business entities that have significant air travel requirements. In order to attract and retain business travelers, we focus on the frequency of flights between major business centers, convenient transit services and an extensive sales network. We launched our initial frequent flyer program in 1998 and joined the "Asia Miles" frequent flyer program in April 2001 to attract and retain travelers. In August 2003, we upgraded and rebranded our frequent flyer program to "Eastern Miles" and introduced a series of new services, including, among others, instant registration of membership and mileage, online registration of mileage, and accumulation of mileage on expenses at certain hotels, restaurants and other service providers that are our strategic partners. As a result of our continual efforts to develop the "Eastern Miles" program, the number of members of the frequent flyer program reached over 22.8 million in 2014. The special services hotline "95530" call center was established and came into operation in 2004. In light of the expansion of national high-speed railway network, we have cooperated with the Shanghai Railway Bureau to launch "Air-Rail Pass Transportation" products. Our domestic and international flights together with its high-speed railway products at Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport Co., Ltd., have formed an air-rail two-way transportation product, which has helped us broaden our customer resources.

In terms of our customer resources, we have actively explored and expanded our customer base of high-end business travelers to accelerate the development of group clients. In addition, we have fully promoted the expansion of Eastern Miles membership. In order to attract more members and to provide members with better experience in terms of diversity, comprehensiveness and flexibility, we have strengthened our cooperation with retail store owners by increasing the number of co-operative stores, covering various industries such as financial services, hotel, car rental and health services. By the end of 2015, we had approximately 3.6 million new Eastern Miles members, with over 26.4 million members.

Our advertising, marketing and other promotional activities include the use of radio, television and print advertisements. We plan to continue to use advertising and promotional campaigns to increase sales on new routes and competitive routes.

In 2016, Eastern E-Commerce established an e-commerce platform by integrating our online and offline platforms. Ticket returns, rebooking and upgrades via multiple channels, such as our official website, mobile application and member website were launched with success, and a total of 12 updates were made to our mobile application. In addition, we identified cooperative partners in non-aviation points to further enrich the applications of aviation points and the variety of integrated products offered, with 133 malls and 89 cooperative partners participating in the sales of non-aviation points. As a result, we recorded 106% and 505% year-on-year growth in our revenues from the sales of mileage points and integrated products, respectively.

Ticket Booking Systems

In 2002 and again in 2012, we upgraded our online ticket booking and payment system to facilitate customer purchases of tickets via the Internet. In 2012, we also expedited the construction of nine overseas websites in a variety of languages. Currently, our global website covers North America, Australia, Europe and Asia Pacific. We continue to encourage our customers to book and purchase tickets via the Internet by initiating various promotional campaigns, upgrading and expanding the services offered by our online sales system. In 2012, we introduced "China Eastern Mobile E", a smartphone application that provides mobile flight booking, flight status and online checking services, which we believe will provide our customers with additional convenient, value-added services. In 2013, we introduced a new version of China Eastern Mobile E and increased the application of "China Eastern Mobile E" to 14 airports. In 2016, we introduced the English version of "China Eastern Mobile E" to our customers. In addition, we introduced “M Website”, a website portal that provides mobile flight booking, flight status and online checking services and applied several third-party payment platforms to our ticket booking system.

By September 2014, the mobile platform realized self-service applications such as mobile check-in of 139 domestic cities plus 3 overseas cities, self change of arrangement service for irregular flights, Eastern Miles QR code membership and the number of registered members amounted to 800,000 people with the mobile sales breaking a record of RMB3.60 million in a single day.

We also increased the success rate of website payment. At the end of September 2014, work regarding the international unified payment channel achieved a success rate of 62.1% and is still being optimized.

In addition, we updated the ability for sale activities and self-service. As of July 31, 2014, sale activities via the CEA official website and the mobile platforms (except limited time special discount during weekend nights) amounted to an accumulated amount of RMB310 million, which accounted for 4.3% of the total sale via website. As of September 30, 2014, mobile and web check-in had been implemented to support up to 142 cities domestically and abroad, covering most of our navigation points.

We also maintain an extensive domestic network of sales agents and representatives in order to promote in-person ticket sales and to assist customers. The majority of our airline tickets are sold by domestic and international sales agents who have contractual relationships with us. Currently, our direct domestic ticket sales are handled primarily through employees based at our ticket counters located at airports such as Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport in Shanghai and in Anhui, Zhejiang, Shandong and Yunnan provinces, as well as at airports in Beijing, Chengdu, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Shenzhen, Xiamen and Yantai. Direct sales are also promoted through the availability of our telephone reservation and confirmation services. In addition to our domestic sales agents located in various cities in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, we maintain overseas sales or representative offices worldwide, including: (i) North American locations such as Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco and Vancouver; (ii) European and Middle Eastern locations such as Frankfurt, Hamburg London, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Brussels and Munich; (iii) Asia-Pacific locations such as Seoul, Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Sapporo, Niigata, Fukushima, Okinawa, Shizuoka, Kanazawa, Toyama, Nagasaki, Kagoshima, Okayama, Matsuyama, Singapore, Bangkok, Phuket, New Delhi, Kolkata, Kuala Lumpur, Ho Chi Minh, Bali, Dubai, Dhaka, Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Vientiane, Yangon, Mandalay, Kathmandu and Maldives; and (iv) Australian locations such as Melbourne and Sydney. We maintain more than 50 overseas sales or representative offices as of December 31, 2014. As of June 1, 2008, we stopped issuing paper tickets for air travel in accordance with a mandate from the International Air Transport Association ("IATA"). The IATA represents approximately 240 airlines and comprises approximately 84% of scheduled international air traffic. As a result of the mandate, we now issue electronic itineraries and receipts as well as electronic tickets to our passengers. We believe the transition to 100% electronic ticketing will decrease administrative costs, increase flexibility and travel options for passengers, in addition to benefiting the environment through the reduced need for paper. All of our direct passenger ticket sales are recorded on our computer systems. Most Chinese airlines, including us, are required to use the passenger reservation service system provided by the CAAC's computer information management center, which is linked with the computer systems of major Chinese commercial airlines. We have also entered into membership agreements with several international reservation systems, including ABACUS, the largest computer reservation system in southeast Asia, TOPAS of Korea, SABRE, GALILEO and WORLDSPAN of the United States, AMADEUS of Europe, INFINI and AXESS of Japan and Sirena-Travel of Russia, which have made it easier for customers and sales agents to make reservations and purchase tickets for our international flights.

SkyTeam Alliance

We officially joined SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance and frequent flyer mileage program that includes international carriers such as, among others, Delta, China Southern, Alitalia, Air France and KLM, on June 21, 2011.

By the end of 2015, we have entered into frequent flyer and airport lounges agreements with 20 SkyTeam member airlines and implemented code- sharing programs covering 670 routes, as well as 336 routes with non-SkyTeam member airlines, which has further broadened the coverage of our route network. By the end of 2016, we implemented code-sharing programs with 12 SkyTeam member airlines and the number of code sharing routes with non-SkyTeam member airlines increased by 52% as compared to last year. We also cooperated with nine SkyTeam member airlines including Delta, Air France and KLM, China, Alitalia, Garuda Indonesia and Iberia in joint check-ins for 21 transit points.

By connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, we are able to offer our passengers seamless transit to 1,062 destinations in 177 countries under a single plane ticket with direct luggage services as of December 31, 2016. Passengers may also enjoy the comfort of approximately 672 VIP airport lounges of SkyTeam around the world. We believe this will be another benefit for our passengers, as they will be afforded additional flight options and frequent flyer mileage benefits through our SkyTeam alliance partners. In addition, we will benefit from possible codeshare and cooperative flight options, reduced costs and increased alliance-related marketing and promotion overseas.

Cargo Operations and Logistics Services

We maintain a network of cargo sales agents domestically and internationally. We and our cooperative partners in our cargo operations have established domestic cargo sales offices in Beijing, Shanghai, Xiamen and other major transportation hubs in China, and international cargo sales offices in various locations in the U.S., Europe and the Asia-Pacific Region. In 2005, we established our northern China, southern China, southeastern China and overseas sales management centers to improve coordination among our sales offices.

In 2012, we leveraged on our internal resources to establish a business platform that provides diversified logistics and management solutions and services through Eastern Logistics, which includes the integrated operations of China Cargo Airlines and Shanghai Far Eastern Airlines Logistics Co., Ltd. Eastern Logistics is engaged in shipping agency, ground cargo handling, logistics, road freight transport (general freight), warehousing and property management. We believed Eastern Logistics would enable us to develop new revenue sources and diversify our ancillary operations, while responding to customer demand for one-stop cargo transportation and logistics services. See "Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions."

In response to the deteriorating aviation freight transportation market condition, we adopted measures such as surrendering and suspending freights, as well as reducing freight fleet scale significantly. We also adjusted our route network in order to stabilize our share in core markets. We fully pushed forward our transformation by developing value-added businesses such as logistics and freight expressway e-commerce. In respect of logistics business, we established six major logistics project teams for areas such as large- scale corporate projects, medical biotechnology, and aviation equipment based on product positioning. We visited major customers to proactively explore demand for logistics proactively. The development of brand customers and direct selling of major client cooperation projects provided logistics solutions to large and medium enterprises. In respect of freight expressway e-commerce, the establishment of the official eaemall.com website allows us to capitalize on the advantages in the network and centralized purchases for our business. Combining with its freight expressway delivery network, Eastern Airlines is able to provide fresh and direct supply of “from the origins to dining table.” Our subsidiary, Shanghai Eastern Airlines Express Delivery Company Limited, officially commenced operation of cross-border e-commerce in 2013 in the Shanghai Free Trade Zone.

On June 5, 2013, our subsidiary, China Cargo Airlines, officially joined the SkyTeam Freight Alliance, which will enable it to further expand its cargo network coverage, strengthen its transit capacity, provide better and more efficient ground services, while lowering operational costs.

In 2014, we focused on the improvement on customer management, freight management and product management and comprehensively enhanced the operation standard of traditional air freight. In terms of customer management, we completed the client structure design and the CRM process flow design; we built the customer relationship management system and established customer incentives policy. We had four new customers, including FedEx, and commenced strategic cooperation with HKCTS and Sinotrans for our international routes development. Regarding domestic routes, we strengthened our cooperation with S.F. Express and EMS. Regarding freight rates management, we completed the new design for the freight rates system and started testing in some of the routines in terms of policy; optimized the monitoring requirements of rate controls and implemented the construction of the freight rates module for the revenue management system; established internal real-time information interaction processes and improved the efficiency and accuracy of the benefit analysis and decision-making. Regarding product management, we completed the system design for the four major products: route network, service guarantee, standardization and customization, comprehensively covering the development needs of freight products and satisfying the sustainable development of freight products. We expended extensive efforts in the development of route network products and published the route seeker app, realizing the integration of resources of the entire network.

We also tactically expanded the network. Through reduction for optimal capacity and flexible purchase of capacity, we continuously consolidated the Europe and America route network and maintained our leading position in terms of the Europe and America market share.

We explored with full efforts the potential of bellyhold through the introduction of localized products, cargo-flight projects, removal of routes with"0 and low" income, international return flight expansion projects, implementation of the reward and punish system which increases volume and income, strengthening of monitoring of external sites and the addition of "newly added" customers, we consolidated the output of external sites and transformation units in 2016, resulting in an increase of 2.8% of bellyhold compared to the same period the previous year.

Tourism and Travel Services

In addition to our airline operations, we also generate commission revenues from tickets sold on behalf of other airlines. Commission rates for these sales are determined by the CAAC and are based on the price of the tickets sold. In December 2003, we acquired 10% of SEDC's then equity interest and 35% of CEA Holding's then equity interest in Shanghai Dong Mei Aviation Travel Corporation Limited, a company that is primarily engaged in the business of selling air tickets, hotel reservation, travel agency and other related services.

With our subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines, we derive revenue from tourism and travel services through Shanghai Airlines Tours. Shanghai Airlines Tours provides various business and leisure travel services, including inbound, outbound and domestic travel, conference and exhibition planning, flight chartering and plane ticket reservation, tour bus and hotel reservation and other related services. Shanghai Airlines Tours is a member of the China Association of Travel Services and Shanghai Association of Tourism (International and Domestic Travel Services divisions), as well as a member of Shanghai Association of Quality, and has been admitted into many international travel organizations including the IATA. Shanghai Airlines Tours has won several awards as a travel services provider, as well as awards and honors for its professional staff and vacation package offerings.

We also derive revenues from the provision of airport ground services for airlines operating to or from Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport, including aircraft cleaning, loading, unloading, storage and ground transportation of cargo and passenger luggage. At present we are the principal provider of these services at Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. We provide these services to foreign carriers generally pursuant to one-year renewable contracts. In 2016, we generated net revenues of approximately RMB3,644 million from our airport ground services and cargo handling and processing services, compared with RMB3,296 million and RMB2,680 million, respectively, generated from such services in 2015 and 2014.

Patents and Trademarks

We own or have obtained licenses to use various domestic and foreign patents, patent applications and trademarks related to our business. While patents, patent applications and trademarks are important to our competitive position, no single one is material to us as a whole. In addition, we own various trademarks related to our business. The most important trademark is the service trademark of China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited. All of our trademarks are registered in China. As of December 31, 2016, we own or have obtained licenses to use 68 trademarks, the number remained stable as of December 31, 2014.

Insurance

The CAAC purchases fleet insurance from PICC Property and Casualty Company Limited ("PICC"), and China Pacific Property Insurance Company Ltd., on behalf of all Chinese airlines. PICC has reinsured a substantial portion of its aircraft insurance business through Lloyd's of London. The fleet insurance is subject to certain deductibles. The premium payable in connection with the insurance is allocated among all Chinese airlines based on the aircraft owned or leased by these airlines. Under the relevant PRC laws, the maximum civil liability of Chinese airlines for injuries to passengers traveling on domestic flights has been increased to RMB400,000 per passenger in March 2006, for which we also purchase insurance. As of July 31, 2006, the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air of 1999, or Montreal Convention, became effective in China. Under the Montreal Convention, carriers of international flights are strictly liable for proven damages up to 100,000 Special Drawing Rights and beyond that, carriers are only able to exclude liability if they can prove that the damage was not due to negligence or other wrongful act of the carrier (and its agents) or if the damage solely arose from the negligence or other wrongful act of a third party. We believe that we maintain adequate insurance coverage for the civil liability that can be imposed due to injuries to passengers under Chinese law, the Montreal Convention and any other agreement we are subject to. We also maintain hull all risk, hull war risk and aircraft legal liability insurance, including third party liability insurance, of the types and in amounts customary for Chinese airlines. See also "Item 3. Key Information — Risk Factors — Risks Relating to the Company — Our insurance coverage and costs have increased substantially, and could have an adverse effect on our operations" for more information on our insurance coverage."

See the section headed "Item 4. Information on the Company — History and Development of the Company".

Fleet

As of December 31, 2016, we operated a fleet of 596 aircraft, including 572 passenger aircraft, most with a seating capacity of over 100 seats, 9 freighters and 15 business aircraft held under trust. In 2016, we introduced 72 aircraft of various models, including A321, A320, A319, B737 and B777 series. With the complete retirement of EMB145 and B737-300 series aircraft, the variety of aircraft models of our fleet has been further streamlined and the fleet structure has been made younger.

We plan to continue to expand our scale in the future and to adjust and optimize our route network, thereby increasing our competitiveness and ability to create more attractive products and services to meet the needs of the market.

Our daily average aircraft utilization rate was 9.7 hours in 2016, decreasing slightly from 10.0 hours in 2015.

The table below sets forth the daily average utilization rates of our jet passenger aircraft for each of the years ended December 31, 2014 and 2015:

The table below sets forth the daily average utilization rates of our jet passenger aircraft for each of the year ended December 31, 2016:

Most of our jet passenger aircraft were manufactured by either Airbus or Boeing. On July 9, 2015, we entered into a purchase agreement with Boeing Company to purchase fifty new Boeing B737 series aircraft which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2017 to 2019. On August 14, 2015, we also entered into a purchase agreement with Airbus SAS to purchase fifteen new Airbus A330 series aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2017 to 2018. On April 28, 2016, we entered into a purchase agreement with Boeing Company to purchase 15 B787-9 aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2018 to 2021. On the same day, we also entered into a purchase agreement with Airbus SAS to purchase 20Airbus A350-900 series aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2018 to 2022.

Future Fleet Development

Our aircraft acquisition program focuses on aircraft that will modernize and rationalize our fleet to better meet the anticipated requirements of our route structure, taking into account aircraft size and fuel efficiency. Our aircraft acquisition program, however, is subject to the approval of the CAAC and the NDRC. Our fleet in the future will mainly comprise of models such as B777 Series for long haul, A330 Series for long-and-medium haul, and A320 Series and B737NG Series for medium-and-short haul. Older aircraft models of high energy-consumption will be surrendered as appropriate. Details of the expected fleet plan from 2017 to 2018 are as follows:

The actual quantity and time of the introduction and retirement of any of these aircraft or any additional aircraft may depend on such factors as general economic conditions, the levels of prevailing interest rates, foreign exchange rates, the level of inflation, credit conditions in the domestic and international markets, conditions in the aviation industry in China and globally, our financial condition and results of operations, our financing requirements, and the terms of any financing arrangements, such as finance leases, and other capital requirements. We believe that our aircraft acquisition plan will help us accomplish our expansion plans while maintaining an efficient fleet and ensuring alternative sources of supply.

Fleet Financing Arrangements

We generally acquire aircraft through either long-term capital leases or operating leases. Under the terms of most capital leases, we generally are obligated to make lease payments that finance most of the purchase price of the aircraft over the lease term. Upon the expiration of the lease term, we must either purchase the aircraft at a specified price or pay any amount by which such price exceeds the proceeds from the disposition of the aircraft to third parties. Alternatively, some capital leases provide for ownership of the aircraft to pass to us upon satisfaction of the final lease payment. Under capital leases, aircraft are generally leased for approximately the whole of their estimated working life, and the leases are either non-cancelable or cancelable only on a payment of a major penalty by the lessee. As a result, we bear substantially all of the economic risks and rewards of ownership of the aircraft held under capital leases. Operating leases, however, are customarily cancelable by the lessee on short notice and without major penalty. Leases in which a significant portion of the risks and rewards of ownership are retained by the lessor are classified as operating leases.

Operating Facilities

We (including subsidiaries and branches) had operations on 661 parcels of land, occupying a total area of approximately 3.6 million square meters, as of December 31, 2016. In addition, as of December 31, 2016, we (including subsidiaries and branches) owned approximately 2,204 buildings with a total gross floor area of approximately 1.3 million square meters. We and major subsidiaries have obtained the land use rights certificates and building ownership certificates for certain parcels of land and buildings, and are currently in the process of applying for the certificates with respect to the remaining parcels and buildings. We did not have any environmental issues that may have a material impact on our utilization of the assets in 2016.